Culture
For many years, historians struggled to find information on the Etruscan people. Etruria, located in central Italy, west of the Apennine mountains, seemed to be a contemporary of archaic Greece and a precursor to the Roman Empire until it was conquered by the Romans. Early Etruscan history shows its Greek influences and unique religious and artistic attributes. Most history we have comes from burial sites, which housed writing, paintings, architecture, and art. Later Etruscan history shows the civilization’s capacity to adapt to Roman culture and conquest.
Etruscans most likely came from the Lydians, who migrated and chose to stay in central Italy for its fertile soil. This wealth of natural resources contributed positively to Etruscan trade, putting the civilization into contact with the Phoenicians and the Greeks, by whom the Etruscans were inspired through literature and art. The Etruscans were acclaimed wine distillers, as they were fond of celebrating and enjoying life. Many of their funerals were also celebratory occasions, in which banquets and games were held. Etruscans are attributed with inventing the gladiator and gladiatorial games adopted by the Romans, as well as the war trumpet, boxing, magistrates, and the triumph, a ceremony celebrating the military victories of great leaders.
Another advantage of the Etruscans location was the natural resources of the land. These resources allowed Etruscans to mine metals needed to put them through the Bronze and Iron ages, meaning they made many sculptures, military weapons, and most importantly, mirrors out of bronze. From Etruscan mirrors found in tombs, archaeologists have learned about the skills of the Etruscans, as well as their interest in mythology. Tarquinia was renowned for its work with bronze in the seventh century, and the tombs in the area hold ample evidence of the skill of the miners and craftsmen there.
Little Etruscan writing survived, but the Etruscans did develop their language from the Phoenician alphabet. Most written Etruscan works were dedications for influential people, carved in metal. Few Etruscans wrote literature, so there is not much for historians to research, and can prove to be difficult to translate.
The height of Etruscan culture occurred from about 650-500 BC. The Etruscans were heavily influenced by the Greeks in their construction of temples and statues during this period. While Greek-styled faces were often used in Etruscan art, the poses of the statues and sarcophagi were different and uniquely Etruscan. Etruscans were far more concerned with portraying bodies realistically, instead of the idealism Greeks used in their paintings and sculptures. However, Etruscans used their own original motifs and themes in their art, in pottery, metalwork, and paintings. They also known for their work with gold, particularly in Caere. Bucchero, a type of “black pottery with a metallic sheen [1]" characteristic to the region, was also popular.
Veii was best known for its terracotta sculptures, many of which were crafted by the sculpting master Vulca. The tombs at Veii housed many of these terracotta sculptures. In fact, many temples and sanctuaries throughout Etruria were made from terracotta, temples crafted in a Greek style. The Etruscans best works were done in bronze and clay, although there are some examples of bas-relief and fresco paintings as well.
Bronze mirror with Chalchas engraving from Vulci
Iron Age Etruscan bucchero pottery
Apollo of Veii sculpture
The Etruscans were drawn to the Greek myths of the heroes, particularly Herakles, over the myths of the gods. Although the Etruscans adopted some the Greek religious myths, they relied more on their own interpretations of religion. A major difference between Greek myth and Etruscan myth is that Etruscans tended to blur the lines between the imaginary and real worlds. For example, paintings in a tomb would depict a banquet of both gods and historical figures, blending possible fact with fiction. The Etruscan religion was a revelation based doctrine, in which, as the stories go, a child was found in a field near Tarquinia who possessed an old man’s face and was called Tages. All of Etruria came to see this child, who told of the mysterious and frightening underworld, as well as the practice and instructions for haruspicy, and then disappeared. Evidence of “a deep hole and the burial of a child who may have been epileptic [2]” in the same area suggests that some parts of this origin story is true. The Etruscans focused most on natural phenomena, their main god Tinia being a god of lightning. They did humanize their gods through anthropomorphism as Greeks did, but had a much less defined structure of gods, because of the focus on the natural world. Their religion was based on coping with death and how daunting the prospect of death is. They followed the prophecies of haruspices, high priests who read entrails for ambiguous prophecies of the future.
In early days, the Etruscans would cremate their dead and place the ashes in beautiful urns depicting huts or helmets. During the height of Etruscan power, wealthy Etruscans buried their dead in elaborately decorated tombs. These tombs were painted, showing signs of the geometric and oriental periods, as well as Greek painting, and portraying many myths. Their dead were buried with many possessions and artifacts made from bronze, gold, and terracotta. While women were buried with cooking and spinning supplies, men were buried with weapons and armor.
These artifacts give a clue to the role men and women played in Etruscan society. Clearly, men were the protectors, going off to fight for honor, although later Etruscan paintings portray well-fed men. Men often wore belts and pants, and were depicted in larger bodies, indicating they could afford to eat well. Women, on the other hand, were in charge of the household, meaning they had control over how to raise the children and managed the household economy. They wore linen robes and woolen mantles. Paintings and writings suggest that the Etruscans were fashionable in their cosmetics and hairstyles, as well as oils and perfumes, keeping up with the trends of the day. Both men and women wore shoes, a seemingly novel concept in ancient societies, and had access to dental care. The wealthiest possessed and were buried with gold jewelry and weapons. In all cases, burials for men and women were used as a sign of status and rank within society, so that the deceased would be remembered and remembered well. In general, Etruscans were much less comfortable with nudity, so almost all figures in paintings and sculptures were clothed.
By about 400 BC, the Roman Empire was gaining status and influence within Italy, and the Etruscans began to come into contact with the Romans. By 250, the Romans had conquered Etruria. The Etruscans, ever adaptable, blended into Roman society, and little of the distinctive Etruscan culture from their peak survived the change. For a time after the Roman conquest of Etruria, people living in central Italy spoke both Latin and Etruscan, meaning the Etruscan culture was blended into Roman culture as the Etruscans adapted to Roman rule.
[1] Dora Jane Hamblin, The Etruscans: The Emergence of Man (Canada: Time Inc., 1975). 17.
[2] Christopher Smith, The Etruscans: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). 88. Kindle edition.
Tomb of the Triclinium fresco at Tarquinia
Seascape with Diver fresco at Tomb of Fishing and Hunting in Monterozzi necropolis at Tarquinia